A systematic review of protocol studies on conceptual design cognition: design as search and exploration

This paper reports findings from the first systematic review of protocol studies focusing specifically on conceptual design cognition, aiming to answer the following research question: What is our current understanding of the cognitive processes involved in conceptual design tasks carried out by individual designers? We reviewed 47 studies on architectural design, engineering design and product design engineering. This paper reports 24 cognitive processes investigated in a subset of 33 studies aligning with two viewpoints on the nature of designing: (V1) design as search (10 processes, 41.7%); and (V2) design as exploration (14 processes, 58.3%). Studies on search focused on solution search and problem structuring, involving: long-term memory retrieval; working memory; operators and reasoning processes. Studies on exploration investigated: co-evolutionary design; visual reasoning; cognitive actions; and unexpected discovery and situated requirements invention. Overall, considerable conceptual and terminological differences were observed among the studies. Nonetheless, a common focus on memory, semantic, associative, visual perceptual and mental imagery processes was observed to an extent. We suggest three challenges for future research to advance the field: (i) developing general models/theories; (ii) testing protocol study findings using objective methods conducive to larger samples and (iii) developing a shared ontology of cognitive processes in design

Systematic literature review of hand gestures used in human computer interaction interfaces

Gestures, widely accepted as a humans' natural mode of interaction with their surroundings, have been considered for use in human-computer based interfaces since the early 1980s. They have been explored and implemented, with a range of success and maturity levels, in a variety of fields, facilitated by a multitude of technologies. Underpinning gesture theory however focuses on gestures performed simultaneously with speech, and majority of gesture based interfaces are supported by other modes of interaction. This article reports the results of a systematic review undertaken to identify characteristics of touchless/in-air hand gestures used in interaction interfaces. 148 articles were reviewed reporting on gesture-based interaction interfaces, identified through searching engineering and science databases (Engineering Village, Pro Quest, Science Direct, Scopus and Web of Science). The goal of the review was to map the field of gesture-based interfaces, investigate the patterns in gesture use, and identify common combinations of gestures for different combinations of applications and technologies. From the review, the community seems disparate with little evidence of building upon prior work and a fundamental framework of gesture-based interaction is not evident. However, the findings can help inform future developments and provide valuable information about the benefits and drawbacks of different approaches. It was further found that the nature and appropriateness of gestures used was not a primary factor in gesture elicitation when designing gesture based systems, and that ease of technology implementation often took precedence

Effects of activity time limitation on gesture elicitation for form creation

Cognitive processing employed during design includes both time critical and time-consuming types of thinking. The ability to match the pace of design generation or modification with the designers thinking processes can be particularly important with gesture-based interfaces for form creation, especially where representation modes of input and response may influence the choice of activities performed. Particularly in gesture elicitation studies, time-consuming design activities can shift the focus on forming the analogies between problem at hand and prior knowledge and experiences, rather than intuitive gesture suggestions that would be the best fit for the given representation mode. However, design methodologies do not prescribe or discuss time limitations and their use in this context. In this paper, time limitation is explored during a gesture elicitation study for three-dimensional object creation, modification and manipulation, by comparing two study parts, one where time limitation was imposed and one where time was unlimited. Resulting gesture durations in both parts were comparable and elicited gestures were similar in nature and employing same elements of hand motion, supporting the hypothesis that time limitation can be a useful methodological approach when gestures are used for interaction with 3D objects and representation and interaction modalities are matched

A novel user-based gesture vocabulary for conceptual design

Research into hand gestures for human computer interaction has been prolific recently, but within it research on hand gestures for conceptual design has either focused on gestures that were defined by the researchers rather than the users, or those that were heavily influenced by what can be achieved using currently available technology. This paper reports on the study performed to identify a user elicited vocabulary of gestures for conceptual design, disassociated from the currently available technology, and its subsequent evaluation. The study included 44 product design engineering students (3rd, 4th year and recent graduates) and identified 1772 gestures that were analysed to build a novel gesture consensus set of vocabulary of hand gestures for conceptual design. This set is then evaluated by 10 other professionals, in order to generalise this set for a wider range of users and possibly reduce the need for training. The evaluation has shown that majority of gestures added to the vocabulary were easy to perform and appropriate for the activities, but that at the implementation stage the vocabulary will require another round of evaluation to account for the technology capabilities. The aim of this work is to create a starting point for a potential future system that could adapt to individual designers and allow them to use non-prescribed gestures that will support rather than inhibit their conceptual design thinking processes, akin to the developments that happened in hand writing recognition or predictive texting

Extending the structural alignment model to similarity judgements of design concepts

Similarity is an important facet of many aspects of human behavior. Similarity has also been identified as an important factor in combinatorial design creativity, specifically analogical reasoning (Chan et al. 2011) and combination of pairs of stimuli (Nagai et al. 2009). Analogical transfer occurs via a cognitive process of structural alignment (Gentner & Markman 1997) and the same is assumed to be true in a design context. Conceptual combination and similarity judgements, however, are both thought to operate via two independent processes of structural alignment and scenario creation (Wisniewski 1997). A number of authors have proposed metrics for similarity in design, however none appear to be supported by human perceptions of similarity. Investigation of the role of similarity in the combination of design concepts requires an understanding of the cognitive mechanisms by which designers perceive similarity. To wards such an understanding, an experiment is conducted to test the applicability of structural alignment as a model of design concept similarity judgement

Natural and intuitive gesture interaction for 3D object manipulation in conceptual design

Gesture interaction with three-dimensional (3D) representations is increasingly explored, however there is little research present on the nature of the gestures used. A study was conducted in order to explore gestures designers perform naturally and intuitively while interacting with 3D objects during conceptual design. The findings demonstrate that different designers perform similar gestures for the same activities, and that their interaction with a 3D representation on a 2D screen is consistent with that which would be expected if a physical object were suspended in air in front of them

An exploration of design synthesis

Building on the contributions of existing works in the area of design ontology, this paper presents a hypothetical model of design synthesis which depicts design activities, design outputs and two modes of thought in design. The model is used as a basis upon which to explore design synthesis at multiple levels of cognitive granularity. Studies of conceptual design cognition lend support to a distinction between the creation of design elements and their composition. Additional studies of cognitive processing are reviewed and summarised in order to identify cognitive processes which might be involved in design composition. The review highlights several cognitive processes which have yet to be studied in an ecologically valid design context but which could form the basis of a multi-level model of design synthesis